This introductory article to the special issue overviews central themes of the field of Ecomusicology as drawn out from the discussions of Indigenous Australian and Aoetearoa New Zealand music and dance performance and/or sound and movement practices as considered with relation to their environments. We discuss how these practices are holistic multimodal art forms, emphasise the importance of deep listening and discuss the role of collective memory and metaphor as central to Indigenous understanding and relating . We also illustrate how these performance traditions exist within contexts of cultural and environmental disruption yet have the power to adapt to ecological change as they have done so over generations. We draw the major themes of this issue together to show how the health of people, Country and music are interconnected and that these interrelational connections have long been central to survival.
Current research has opened new avenues for exploring the relationship between music, sound and the environment (Allen & Titon 2023, Allen & Dawe 2015). This field has in recent years become known as Ecomusicology, described by Titon as “the study of music, culture, sound and nature in a period of environmental crisis” ([2013] 2020:224). As Allen & Dawe further explain:
Ecomusicology contextualises and champions the significance of sound and music studies to all life. As we seek to emphasise people and planet connections and understandings made sonically in a time of crisis, such an endeavour is timely (2015:12).
In this themed issue of the world of music (new series) we present current research on the relationship between music, sound and the environment across the Australasian region and beyond. The performance traditions central to the articles each carry forward long standing social and environmental engagements in societies that have had a relatively small environmental impact. Music and dance performance and/or sound and movement are centred as ways in which people activate the deep interconnections central to their knowledge and belief-systems. The seven case studies that we have brought together for this issue illustrate how the relationship between people and their environment is mediated through music and/or sound and that this fosters a more holistic rather than human-centered mindset, arguably fundamental in redressing environmental crises. Six of the articles focus on performance traditions centred on music and dance informed by methods in ethnomusicology; while one article focuses on the sounds of Earth, informed by methods in soundscape studies. All the articles connect sound and movement, whether it be human movement or that of the wind and water, deep listening requires an attentiveness to bodies and movement. Such attentiveness can foster connections, and responsibilities to others and surroundings as the articles in this issue attest to. As Chester & Ricketson describe, “To walk silently carries with it the charge of treading lightly” (this issue). In the articles on music and dance traditions in this volume, sound and movement encompass the socio-cultural construction of place: spaces that have meanings through people's interaction with the physical environment over time.
Most of the authors of this issue’s articles originally came together for the 47th World Conference of the International Council for Traditions of Music (ICTM) held at the University of Ghana, Legon in July 2023, presenting together as a panel session on “Ecomusicology and Performance,” convened by Georgia Curran and Myfany Turpin.1 The authors are seven Indigenous authors and co-authors (Ford, Haami, Gallagher, Wayne, Brown, Bracknell and Patrick), five non-Indigenous scholars from musicology, linguistics, and anthropology with long term collaborations with Indigenous communities spanning decades (Barwick, Curran, Turpin, Dowsett, Biddle), and three non-Indigenous scholars from sound studies, composition and creative writing (Chester, Ricketson and Ward). The majority of the articles in this issue come from an ethnomusicological background, with perspectives shaped by Indigenous ecological knowledge. Chester and Ricketson’s article, however, draws in important additional perspectives from a sound studies and composition background. All the articles have been written as part of research projects which have gone through approvals with Australian/Aotearoa New Zealand Universities. Our themed issue emphasises Indigenous authorship and ownership of place-centred knowledge, working against the dominant frameworks which have through history prioritised representation of white, university-educated voices, neglecting the voices of those educated outside of these systems including Indigenous scholars and tradition bearers. These authors of this special issue all work within an academic tradition which values long term relationships with communities and reciprocity to ensure that there are benefits which go back to the communities and people who have shared this information. These benefits include support for activities which empower and provide avenues for intergenerational transmission and appropriate handover of cultural responsibilities. Many of these activities are discussed in the articles in this special issue.
Our co-guest editor Payi Linda Ford is of the Mak Mak Marranunggu Indigenous Australian cultural group from the Daly - Finniss region in the north-west of Australia, south of Darwin – Country known as Kurrindju. In Kurrindju, the authoritative knowledge holder has a legacy to select a person that will be a primary custodian of the Country (land, water, sea, sky and solar system) its lores and law. The traditional Aboriginal knowledge custodians identify the best person to nominate to the community to transfer gendered knowledge. The responsibility to accept the role of this knowledge custodian for the clan and region are huge. Inheriting an orally passed down tradition is a privilege, but it is also a heavy load to carry as discussed by Emily Ford in the Preface to this special issue. There are responsibilities to songlines, dances, body designs, ritualised actions, and to caring for Country including sites (sacred and spiritual) on the land, places, living and non-living entities, environmental features and phenomena. This holistic and interrelational understanding and experience of the world is for Indigenous peoples across Australia often captured in the concept of Country – a term which is unpacked further in the articles in this issue and which aptly captures the place-centred inseparability of social and environmental networks and ceremonial art forms as they are experienced through sound, vision and movement.2 In this special issue this concept is illustrated amongst Indigenous peoples from Australia and Māori from Aotearoa New Zealand. Ford & Barwick’s article illustrates how this relationality extends amongst these regions connecting Kurrindju to Garfagnana in Tuscany, Italy. As Allen & Dawe have pointed out that, “Conversation, dialogue, collaboration and community are central aspects of [the ecomusicology] field” (2015:3). For these reasons, we argue that relationality is core to ecomusicological research. In centring on frameworks which bring together the intersections and inseparability of music, sound and the environment, a number of key themes have arisen during the compilation of this issue which we introduce briefly here but are further address with respect to specific case studies.
Many of the examples included in this special issue are part of practices that involve the whole body. Australian Indigenous songs involve both auditory and visual senses, as they are prototypically part of multi-modal ceremonial performance events. In its full ceremonial context, singing is coupled with actions such as musical accompaniment, painting, dancing, and the use of ritual items. A water ceremony, for example, has water songs, water paintings and water dances; performed by the right people (e.g. people who share a water ancestor) and connecting to the right place (a water dreaming place). In this context, ceremony has the potential to influence the world, as articles by both Curran et al. and Turpin & Ward demonstrate in this issue. It is a way humans communicate and share identities and obligations with non-humans, such as plants, animals, rain, and wind. In turn, these non-humans respond to and provide for humans and one another (Turpin & Ward). Indigenous ceremonies are ‘multisensory events’ (Bracknell, Dowsett et al.) in traditional as well as new contexts, three of which are described in this book, (Turpin & Ward, Bracknell, and Dowsett et al.). Capitalising on the multi-modal nature of song, audio-visual technology has played a major role in attracting a larger audience at these contemporary ceremonies (see Bracknell, Dowsett et al. this issue).
The importance of attending to movement, such as the gestures of a person, or marks on the earth’s surface signalling past movement, or cultural change resulting from human movement is evident in the notion of ‘deep listening’. The phrase has been used by composers to describe a practice that “digs below the surface of what is heard [...] unlocking layer after layer of imagination, meaning, and memory down to the cellular level of human experience” (Oliveros 2005, cited in Pavlicevica & Impeyb 2013). Indigenous scholars use the term to refer to a practice that “draws on every sense and every part of our being” (Atkinson 2001, cited in Brearley 2015). It considers underlying emotions, intentions and context. It is typically a silent practice which fosters learning from and respecting ancient knowledge and heritage. As the late Arrernte Elder, Kathleen Kemarre Wallace from Central Australia states “Listen deeply and let those stories in” (Wallace & Lovell 2009). Chester & Ricketson (this issue) describe how listening involves both physiological and psychological processes, enabling the whole body to be involved in the sensorium of listening ‘a tuning of mind and body’ which can create a feeling of wellbeing.
For many Indigenous peoples, performance traditions form a collective memory with others in relational networks and are the lived experiences of being on Country, doing cultural practices on Country, with Country and are necessary for Country to renew itself. Shared memories are carried forward across generations, in ways that may not be fully understood by individuals, but carry forward the deep connections of Indigenous people to ancestors and places, through stories and songlines.
From a Mak Mak Marranunggu perspective, Ford describes her Country, Kurridju, using her mother, Ngulilkang Nancy Daiyi’s words:
When you eat the fat from Country, this reinvigorates and connects you to Country. Your ngordanminy or sweat is the right scent for that Country! (2003)
As is illustrated further in Ford & Barwick’s article (this issue), Country is a conceptual framework that is central to Indigenous Australian experience and is also applicable to other Indigenous peoples (Māori, see Haami this issue) and extended to other traditions practiced by small-scale groups of people linked intimately to particular places (see Ford & Barwick this issue).
Metaphor is a powerful tool used across Indigenous groups worldwide to facilitate understanding and relating across generations. Through metaphor, abstract ideas specific to particular cultural worlds can be communicated cross-culturally as well as intergenerationally. Lambe has reflected on the power of sharing cultural narratives for Kanyen’kehaka (Mohawk, People of the Place of Chert or Quartz) and Oglala Lakota Nations:
[...] the narrative and the figurative language […] embodied spoke to a diversity of peoples’ hearts and minds on many levels. The process of ‘coming to know’ has a strong personal element in Native cultures. [...] I never hear them tell an audience what the stories or metaphors and symbols within the stories meant. It was up to the listener to reflect and come to her or his own understanding. [... Just as the processes of nature unfold, so does a person’s knowledge and being as they grow and mature (Lambe 2011:78)
In Wanta Jampijinpa Patrick’s use of metaphor to explain Indigenous concepts in a cross-cultural sense is an extension of this cultural practice. Dowsett et al. (this issue) illustrate how powerful metaphors from Warlpiri purlapa (a traditionalised genre of men’s and women’s ceremony) are inserted into the Milpirri festival-like staged event held biennially in the remote community of Lajamanu in northern Australia. Meri Haami’s Kaupapa Māori ecomusicological framework, He Whiringa Hīnaki, is focused on the metaphor of the practice of weaving the hīnaki – a fishing net used by her people of the Whanganui River. This metaphor aptly captures the inseparably of human and ancestral intentions. Metaphors are also carried through historical time. Chester and Ricketson’s article describes the creation of aeoliphones to give agency to the wind to create music without human intervention. In the tradition of aeolian harps, in which ‘Nature speaks to Man’ they bring into the present this trope from literature of English Romanticism.
The challenges of colonisation are ongoing and systemic in both Australia and Aotearoa New Zealand. For many people in these nations, enforced separation from their land has led to disruptions to the relational networks central to their wellbeing. Indigenous communities often have the least environmental impact but suffer the biggest threats to their ways of life from significant ecological and climatic changes. Both these factors are due to their deeply formed interconnections of people, places and environments over generations.
Colonization, the pandemic, climate change and global economic development pose on-going challenges. Ford’s descriptions are vivid of the ways in which the cattle trucks travelling constantly through her Country ‘stir up the dust’ effecting the growth of native vegetation. Curran et al described from a Warlpiri perspective describes the deep changes to the landscapes and weather patterns imposed through violent colonial histories preventing local populations from continuing with their highly evolved systems of land management. Whilst efforts to reclaim these interconnections in the Noongar region of south-west Australia are evident and powerful in the Noongar Wonderland and Song Circle projects discussed in Bracknell’s article, he also notes a level of discomfort in using greater resources to raise environmental and cultural awareness. This is also the case with Milpirri, the biennial event held in the remote Northern Territory community of Lajamanu, bright lights, amplification and significant resources are used to bring about the positive social aspects described. A number of the articles in this issue describe the impossibility of holding these kinds of events without government support (Ford & Barwick, Bracknell, Dowsett et al.) and the effects when this is withdrawn or not continued.
In this issue we emphasize the power and importance of performance in the present moment to sustain these vital interconnected biocultural worlds. As Turpin and Ward describe, “Music, with its profound emotional resonance, is a site where human agency and ecology’s sentience meet” (this issue). Dowsett et al. illustrate how the introduced Hip Hop familiar to youth in Lajamanu has been used in Milpirri to enhance knowledge transfer, including of place-based environmental knowledge, quoting Holme’s descriptions of the ways this ceremony teaches Lajamanu youth who are removed from their traditional lands, about bush foods and particular sites which they may never have visited but which are core to their cultural identity. In the Kingfisher festival described by Turpin & Ward, they illustrate the necessity of a ‘cultural contact zone’ between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples involved in art and activism, describing this as an emergent space responding to the ongoing legacy of colonisation.
Music, song and ceremony are central to health and wellbeing due to their active power in maintaining the interrelational networks vital to survival. The two Warlpiri-focused articles in this issue (Curran et al. and Dowsett et al.) draw on Patrick’s ngurra-kurlu framework which shows the interrelationships of land, law, language, ceremony and skin (social groupings). He illustrates that these are all inseparable and crucial for being in and understanding Warlpiri Country. Song, and present-day performance of the music, dance, designs and ceremonies are ways to maintain these vital links. Performing ceremonies is an active way to support intergenerational transfer of these systems and the future health of the planet. Turpin and Ward unpack the power of song and ceremony as an agentive force. Bracknell and Dowsett et al. illustrate the importance of creating new contexts for the performance of ancient song traditions so that these forces can continue to keep Country, people and the interrelated networks healthy into the future.
The above-described themes are drawn out more fully through the focused case studies in the articles in this special issue. In the first article, Ford and Barwick explore the similarities in the ancestral performance traditions in two very distinct regions: the Kurrindju region in northern Australia and the Garfagnana region in Tuscany, Italy. Both are owned and performed by large family groups whose ownership and existence in their respective places extends back for countless generations. As in many Indigenous societies, their performance traditions emanate from this place (Basso 1996), and they share a world-view where humans interact within a complex of “other beings and the environment itself”. Such “sentient ecology” (Anderson 2000) or “kincentric ecology” (Salmón 2000, McNiven 2013) underpins Ford’s comment on ancestral performance in her region “We know that our Wali dancing makes Country happy when the winds blow the leaves and embrace the performers at the ceremony” (this issue). As described above, Country is presented as a conceptual framing which involves both sentient and non-sentient beings who all have agency, as is central to many of the articles in this volume.
In both the Kurrindju and Garfagnana regions, ancestral performance traditions are passed on orally through intergenerational performance, strengthening ties between past, present, and future generations, or what Allen & Titon refer to as folding the “ancestral past into the present” (2023:5). Yet both cultures face challenges in maintaining their expressive culture, with the authors finding similarities in the root causes; from the impacts of colonization, climate change, global economic development to the COVID pandemic. The authors posit that “the relationality of people and Country drives this creative urge, which strives to persist and adapt to changing circumstances” (this issue).
In the second article, Haami presents a Māori ecomusicological framework He Whiringa Hīnaki centred around the fishing net used by generations of her people from the Whanganui River. She illustrates how the cultural practice of weaving these nets as carried forward by Māori from this region can inform analysis of waiata (songs), whilst also showing how this way of understanding and learning about waiata informs interactions in this sentient environment embedded in generations of being in this place. In this approach waiata (songs), are intertwined in ancestral and environmental contexts. Through learning from passed on practices like singing and weaving, Haami shows that they provide guidance for how to operate responsibly in the world and respond ethically to other aspect of these environments. She illustrates how they can also be used to inform Māori from other regions but also beyond, and for Indigenous people worldwide living in different, but similarly interlinked biocultural worlds.
The third, fourth, fifth and sixth articles in this issue centre on Indigenous Australia performance traditions. Curran et al. analyse a Warlpiri rain ceremony, fire ceremony and their associated Jukurrpa (Dreaming) stories to show how Warlpiri knowledge of the environment and their land management systems are embedded in ceremonial practices. Rain and fire renew one another, a cycle also expressed in the Jukurrpa (Dreaming), ceremonial performance and Warlpiri social organisation. There has been a burgeoning interest in Indigenous land management practices since the severe bush fires in south-eastern Australia of 2019–2020. The authors point out the irony of this as many Aboriginal people have lost access to, and rights to manage their Country since colonisation (this issue). At the heart of Warlpiri ceremonial performance is the importance of caring for nguru (Country), which encompasses land, spirit and the social construction of place. The authors emphasise the importance of relational connections between all beings, including water and fire. A kin-centric ecology underpins Warlpiri performance traditions as all beings, ceremonies, and the places from which they emanate, belong to one of the four Warlpiri social groups (a patricouple). The authors show how Warlpiri ceremonies nurture a person’s connections with Country, encompassing human and non-human entities as well as places.
The fourth, fifth and sixth articles centre on contemporary Indigenous performance as a means to develop a connection with the natural environment of one’s place. In Chapter 5, Turpin and Ward argue that music can serve as a powerful agent in shaping human-environment relationships. Across the world music plays a role in forming one’s identity, influencing a person’s activities and social worlds they inhabit. Music can also play a role in building relationships with local ecologies, especially in Indigenous cultures where humans are not seen as separate from their environment. In Australian Aboriginal societies, song can be a tool to influence one’s environment. In particular, how performance that connects people to Country, this can create hope and inspire environmental and social change. Drawing on two case studies they show how the concept of sentient ecology (Anderson 2000) is evident in the traditional ceremonial practices of Kaytetye people in central Australia and in a contemporary festival in Melbourne initiated by Wurundjeri Elder Uncle Ian Hunter. The article explores how in Kaytetye, and other Aboriginal societies, performance is a means to influence both the physical and non-physical world. In the Melbourne based contemporary Indigenous ‘Return of the Sacred Kingfisher Festival’ the power of collective action, and the possibility of restoring both nature and cultural heritage led to a reflection on what music means and what it can be used for. As the performance progressed, festival participant and co-organiser Ward experienced her thinking change from performance as a way to teach people about the environment, to being a force that perhaps could influence behaviour, both human and non-human. The chapter invites the reader to reflect on their own relationship with land, music, myth, and identity.
In the fifth article, Noongar song-maker and scholar Bracknell argues that broader public engagement with Indigenous performance can enhance Australians' understanding of their environment and foster stronger reciprocal relationships with the land, becoming a catalyst for environmental awareness and action. In doing so he challenges the rigid separation between nature and culture imposed by colonial systems. As in most Indigenous societies, Noongar songs and dance are steeped in detailed observations and a deep understanding of the ecology of one’s environment, built over thousands of years, and woven into complex cultural systems of place and kin-based obligation and inheritance. Indigenous people may have differing views on the appropriateness of using such ancient traditional songs in contemporary settings to be experienced by non-Indigenous and Indigenous alike. To avoid such issues, and with encouragement from senior Noongar people, Bracknell created a new repertoire of Noongar songs and dances using Noongar language and thematic and stylistic features of old, archived Noongar songs. Bracknell reflects on the use of these songs in three large festivals (Perth Festival 2022, EverNow 2023, 2024) and in schools across the Noongar region, a large region in south-west Western Australia. With electronic dance music and high-tech lighting, Noongar Wonderland drew participation from a large audience, fulfilling the dual aims of reinvigorating Noongar traditions and promoting an Indigenous understanding of Country; however, Bracknell observes large-scale multi-media performance may not be the best way to tread lightly on the planet. The hunger for further Noongar engagement and resources; and the growing pool of Noongar speaking artists provides hope in fulfilling Bracknell’s desire to “match the ecological themes presented with ecologically sound production values” (this issue).
Warlpiri ceremonies, like all Indigenous performance traditions (Treloyn & Charles 2021), are at risk of being forgotten as they struggle to find a place in contemporary society. The sixth article by anthropologists Dowsett and Biddle and Milpirri creative director and Indigenous studies scholar, Patrick considers a recent innovation to support the continuation of Warlpiri ceremonies in the remote community of Lajamanu. The authors describe a new intergenerational performance event which combines hip hop with aspects of Warlpiri knowledge drawn from ceremony. The event is called Milpirri, a word that refers to a type of cloud associated with summer rain according to the Warlpiri Dictionary (Laughren et al. 2022: 426). This event connects to broader Indigenous practices of living heritage within challenging colonial contexts. The authors show how hip hop – a genre originating from African American and Caribbean cultures in the 1970s – has been embraced by Indigenous artists to express indigeneity, identity, and political activism has evolved beyond urban representation to become a tool for environmental and cultural activism. Milpirri emphasizes community collaboration, cultural transmission, and ecological engagement, with visitors coming from neighbouring communities and beyond. Milpirri fosters community resilience and cultural continuity while engaging youth in the learning and performance of traditional knowledge. The authors argue that Milpirri is a powerful “ecosomatic practice” (Shannon Rose 2024) as it connects people to the natural world through dance relating to the Jukurrpa and Warlpiri ceremonies.
The seventh article draws on the field of soundscape ecology, which seeks to understand how sound reflects ecological patterns and processes in specific environments (Krause 2016). Sound studies researcher, Chester, and composer, Ricketson, developed specialised equipment to listen to earth's vibrations beneath the sand and water, and wind, with the aim of fostering a relationship with the environment based on exchange and empathy. They also raise the question of whether vibration may be able “to communicate Earth’s memories and stories, and contribute new techniques, approaches, methods, and knowledge for sound-based research that decentres storytelling as an exclusively human experience" (this issue). The article is coauthored with Earth, emphasising the active role that matter plays in shaping human experience (cf. Robinson 2020, Bennett 2010). The authors find that after listening for some time there is increased awareness of environmental sound and “the lines blur between actively listening to Earth and becoming a part of the soundscape of Earth” (this issue). The authors created an aeoliphone – a musical instrument activated by wind – to further understanding of the interrelationship between wind and its environment. In order to promote active listening and to enable people to perceive sounds “at the fringes of perception” the authors created a multi-sensory sound installation. This included vibration technologies such as pulsating sand on drums (bringing to mind the intertidal zone) and technologies that “gently pummelled listening bodies to augment the experience and the ‘feeling’ of sound”. In order to simulate the complex spatial decoding that occurs when we listen in situ (diminished via headphones and speakers), the installation involved a cube of eight speakers “to create a sense of location, depth, and movement” to control of the listening experience. The authors ask us to consider how the experience of listening places one “in conversation with the environment.” This may well indeed foster a deeper consideration of the relationship humanity has with earth.
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